Stanford Rivers by H M Scott (Part 2) – Life in Mediaeval Times

Life in Mediaeval Times

Records, Parish Records, Councils, Population

A Short Picture of Everyday Life and Domestic Occupations in Mediaeval Times

The peasants' dwellings were simply constructed of rough timbers and wattle and daub for the walls. A number of sticks were stuck upright and twigs woven in and out and daub thrown thereon until they were of the correct thickness. These structures were naturally fragile and easily combustible.

Most roofs were thatched - ventilation was either non-existent or rudimentary. Smoke from any fires used merely escaped through the door, windows or crevices. The fire was either set on the bare floor of hard earth or on an iron plate. Except in the larger mansions, chimneys were virtually unknown until the end of the 15th century. Glass was expensive and therefore most peasants covered their window openings with a wooden shutter or a framed canvas, or cloth, blind.

Each Village had a Woodwright (Carpenter) and a Wheelwright - apart from these, skilled workers were scarce and the farmhouses and smaller villages were served by travelling Smiths and Tinkers. The village women occupied themselves by plaiting straw or reed for neck-collars, stitched and stuffed sheepskin bags for saddles, peeled rushes for wicks and made candles. Spinning wheels were much used, home-made cloth and linen supplied all needs. As late as 1557 we find straw pallets used as beds. A few stools and a trestle table and a chest to hold the best clothes normally completed the furnishings. A feather bed was considered a very precious belonging. Prior to harvest time, the poor peasant lived mainly on green (new) cheese, curds and cream, and oat cakes. This, with bread of pease or beans comprised their normal diet. The lord of the manor's serfs fared better - they were given bread, a mess of pottage, a dish of flesh, or fish, and perhaps cheese. These rations must not be considered normal, but were certainly superior to those which most men could afford themselves. The poor peasants were constantly taken to the Manorial Courts on charges of poaching.

There was a frightful wastage of mediaeval life, apart from the toll taken by war. Normal safeguards against infection were unknown. The dangers of childbirth were immense, and during the years of infancy, a constant losing battle went on against plague and fevers which were endemic. The population only slowly increased from the time of the Conquest in 1066 to the time of the plague in 1349. The loss by death was so severe that it took over two years to add one individual to an average village community of say 300 souls.

Immorality gave much cause for concern to the lord of the Manor. A serf's daughter was naturally an asset to the lord and when she married the children of the marriage were of additional value to the Manor.

A Brief Description of the Meaning of “The Manor” and the Title of “Lord of the Manor”

After the Romans left England in 410 A.D., chaos prevailed but leaders arose who offered the people a certain amount of security. These were Lords of the land (their Manors); purchased, or received from the King for services rendered. They owed military and other services to the Crown. Each was a responsible Lieutenant of the King and administered Law, Order and Justice in his area. Their status could also be granted them by the powerful Barons a process known as "sub-infeudation".

"Manor" is not an easy word to explain, as it is often loosely used. In its origin, the word is another name for a house. In spite of a certain uniformity in the way manors were run, they differed in size, agricultural activities and their customs. The lands were cultivated by unfree tenants. Under the Normans, the Manor was given its Baronial Court (See "Courts"). The lord's relation to his tenantry was that of a constitutional ruler to his subjects and the Manor was similar to a petty state.

The lord possessed important rights and privileges over his tenantry, he had definite duties to discharge towards them. Some dealt fairly but others earned an evil reputation with the peasantry.

A manor may be defined as an Estate combined with an administrative unit with the Manor House (or Hall) as its centre.

In early days, large Manors were portioned off ("Sub-Manors") and given to friends and dependants of the lord, but after 1289 new Manors could only be created by the Crown. We will read later of the former sub-manors in Stanford Rivers (Littlebury, Berwick, etc.) which have, over the years, reverted to the main manor. A Statute of 1293 stopped Sub-infeudation and the creation of new Manors. The early Parish churches mostly depended on the local lord and his responsibilities included the provision and maintenance of the Archery Butts, Pillory, Stocks, Cucking Stool, Whipping Post, Pound and the Standard Weights and Measures.

Life for the personal servants of the lord was, generally, comparatively good. They were sheltered in the manor house, provided with food and drink and given money to spend in the village Ale-house and had little anxiety for their day-to-day existence. Mediaeval life could offer little more to men of villein stock who were born in the yoke of servitude.

In 1085, William the Conqueror had ordered a survey of England to be made and in the following year officials were sent out to record the owner, extent, population and taxable value of every estate and how it was farmed. The smaller volume-the little Domesday-contains the details of Essex, Norfolk and Suffolk. In that year the Crown held 1,422 Manors in demesne and the Monasteries also held a considerable number. Every manor had its lord, either resident or represented by a Steward or Reeve. William turned out most of the Saxon landholders, but kept some of the lands for himself-the remainder he gave in return for military and other services to many adventurers who came over to England with him. Odo (Bishop of Bayeux), his half-brother received large estates in Essex -the greatest Baron in Essex was, however, Eustace of Boulogne. For the next 100 years there is little written evidence of the ways in which the land was held, organised and farmed; but later mediaeval records show that Essex had become completely manorialised during the interval. Some aspects of this manorialisation endured long and died slowly-well within living memory many Essex people held their homes and lands as Copyhold tenants.

When a peasant approached death, he naturally thought of the bestowal of his personal goods. The right of an unfree man to make a Will was long disputed and many lords opposed it. The law forbade him to leave his land to other than his heirs-of course, for the serf, there could be no question of this, for he only held his land from his lord-but his personal property was his to dispose of as he would. The lord could, however, step in and take the chattels before probate of his Will had been obtained. In the 13th century, the Church came out boldly on the side of the serf and the making of Wills was encouraged by the Church and allowed by the more liberal lords. Widows-as well as the old and feeble, were cared for under the Manorial regime. The lord had a special interest to watch that a widow remained chaste and he objected to any action on her part which tended to cheapen her in the eyes of possible suitors.

The hard working villagers looked forward to the holidays such as May Day, Midsummer Day, Christmas Day and the occasions of Births, Marriages and Deaths gave welcome relaxation. In the 13th century we find the Church making pronouncements against the lax behaviour at Marriage ceremonies and issued injunctions to keep "Bride-Ales" within reasonable limits.

In spite of his own power, the lord could be penalised by his own Court for trespass or for not fencing in his tenant's lands. He had the right to approve the marriage of his Villein's daughter and her dowry (so as not to lose control of her father's cattle, etc.). He levied a fine (see "Merchet")usually left to the discretion of his Steward or Bailiff-on marriages and naturally dis. couraged any member of his tenant's family from leaving the confines of the Manor. The lord had both Tenants' and Serfs, from whom his Bailiff collected food and maintenance tributes. His income came from a multitude of sources (See for example- "Leyrite"). Apart from the Fines imposed by his Court, he usually possessed Fishing rights and his "rights of Warren" gave him strict control over the trapping of Game If his own land required manure, he could insist that all the village cattle be grazed thereon. He could compel his tenants to grind their corn at the Manorial Mill and could punish any who disobeyed. Bread could only be baked in a special oven, owned or controlled by the lord, who also had the right to regulate the sale of beer. The right to hold the "Court Baron" (see "Glossary") was a great privilege-see also "Court Leet". The control of the Manor was recorded in "Court Rolls", "Rent Rolls", "Feet of Fines", etc. Manorial records covering Essex dated prior to 1271 have not survived and the last Court book of Stanford Rivers is dated 1923 when courts ceased to be held.

The Manorial organisation was at the height of its powers between 1200 and 1350. This period saw it declining towards its fall

The following picture of an ideal lord of a manor is drawn by a writer of the 13th century:

The lord ought to love God and Justice, and be faithful and true in his sayings and doings and he ought to hate sin and injustice and evil doing. The lord ought not to take counsel with men full of young blood and ready courage, who know little or nothing of business-nor of any juggler, flatterer or idle talker, nor of such as bear witness by present, but he ought to take counsel with worthy and faithful men, ripe in years, who have seen much and know much, and who are known to be of good fame, and who were never caught or convicted for treachery or any wrongdoing; nor for love, nor for hate, nor for fear, nor for menace, nor for gain, nor for loss, will turn aside from truth, and knowingly counsel their lord to do him harm. He ought to command and ordain that the accounts be heard every year, not in one place but in all the Manors, for so can one quickly know everything, and understand the profit and loss. And he ought to command and ordain that no bailiff have his food in the Manors except at a fixed price in money, so that he can take nothing from the Manors but hay, firewood and straw; and that no friend, stranger nor anyone from the lord's hostel or elsewhere be received at the Manors at the lord's expense, nor shall anything be given or delivered to them without a writ, unless the bailiff or provost wish to acquit it from their own purses for the great expense one is unnecessarily put to. He ought to enquire by his own men and others on his own manors as many as there are, about his Steward and his doings and the improvements he has made since his coming; in the same way he ought to enquire about his profits and losses from the bailiff and reeve and how much he will have to seek from both. He ought to ask for his auditors and rolls of accounts, then he ought to see who has done well and who not and who has made improvement and who not, and who has made profit but loss, and those he has then found good and faithful and profitable let him keep on this account. And if anyone be found who has done harm and is by no means profitable, let him answer for his doing and take farewell. And if the lord observe these said forms then will each lord live a good man, and honestly, and be as he will rich and powerful without sin, and will do injustice to no one. He ought to command the auditors on the Manors to hear the plaints and wrongs of everybody who complains of the steward or reeve, or hayward, or any other who is of the Manor, and that full justice be done to franks and villeins, customary tenants and other plaintiffs such as by inquest can be had".

At the beginning of the 14th century the lords of the manor were still strong and feudal conditions prevailed-the peasants were still bound to the soil of the lords. The serf - or villein was, however, sometimes permitted to hold a minute crop-land with a share in the village grazing rights and access to the common woodland. The lord charged him a fixed proportion of his produce and stock, or if none available, the lord would force him to work on his private demesne. After the Black Death (Bubonic Plague) in 1347–50, the survivors among the peasantry were in a much better position -there was a shortage of men to till the land, the value of farming land fell and the price of labour went up. The lords found that they could not farm their lands with the reduced number of serfs and many strip-holdings were left without the necessary labour. Many strips were joined together and these larger units became the property of middle-class yeomen, who in turn hired labour, and free labourers without land were able to command higher wages. If a bailiff pressed a villein to work, he fled to better himself elsewhere and in view of the shortage of workers no questions were asked as to whence he came. The lords were forced to commute field services for wages in cash, otherwise they were unable to cultivate their demesne lands. With this cash, the serfs could save to buy their freedom and pay rent for their farms.

The gap between the lord of the manor and the villein was closing. The villein rapidly disappeared-he either became a labourer without land, or a yeoman farmer. Even on Manors where full service had been commuted, the lords often continued to enforce certain servile dues, such as merchet, the heriot, etc. The battle for complete freedom led to sporadic attacks of violence and ultimately to the Rising of 1381. The South-East of England was the chief area of the revolt-The Prior of Bury St. Edmunds was one of those murdered by his serfs. The Rising originated from the Poll-Taxits administration caused risings in Essex and Kent which became the signal for widespread rebellion. The Manor houses were invaded-Charters and Manor Rolls were destroyed. Even London was captured by the outlaws, the Tower of London was surrendered. Richard II met the rebels at Mile End and granted commutation of all servile dues for a rent of 4d per acre and a free pardon to all. This satisfied most of the rebels, but Wat Tyler was killed at Smithfield leading his section of the mob. After this strong action by the Mayor (Walworth) the rising was put down, the serfs won their freedom but many were thereafter separated from the soil. The villagers under the Squire became a mixture of wealthy farmers, village craftsmen and free landless labourers who were constantly drifting off to the towns. The change from one form of society to the other was long drawn out, from the 12th to the 19th centuries.

The Manorial Court lived on and actually its power increased in the 16th century and continued to deal with petty misdeeds, etc. In the 17th century, the Parish became the important unit of local government and the influence of the Manor Court steadily declined.

In the 18th century the Manorial jurisdiction was merged into a single Court called indifferently - The View of Frankpledge, The Court Leet, The Court Baron, The Great Court, etc. The chief part o. the business of these Courts was the management of the Common fields and pastures and the appointment of the Village Officers. The Courts also decided what crops should be sown. During the 19th century the term "Manor" was usually applied to a specific estate, generally having a principal residence, the owner or lord of which still retained certain ancient manorial rights over the land. The Law of Property Act 1922–25 removed the legal rights of lords of the Manor to hold lands. Today (in the 1970s) the title "Lord-or Lady-of the Manor" is only a nominal one, although it confers on the bearer a certain social status. It is, of course, one of the oldest titles in English usage, and is hereditary. In recent years a small number of these incorporeal titles have changed hands for financial reasons, but the Manorial documents must be registered, and by law, kept within the Nation. The Lordship of a Manor is a last gesture of gracious luxury in an age of restlessness and cynical impermanence.

The Manorial Records

These documents show the old English way of life - where those who lived and worked in the Manor were not merely Freemen or Serfs but members of a community over which the lord of the Manor was head, the seed of which has grown into the great tree of the Welfare State. These valuable old records are considered to be of such importance that by Act of Parliament, The Master of the Rolls of the Royal Courts of Justice has been empowered to make special rules as to their safe and proper preservation and they may not be exported from the country without special licence. The Manor Court Rolls, mainly in Latin until 1733 were usually written by the lord's steward.

In spite of the existence of many records, the research into the Manorial history is complicated. Extant documents only give a partially complete picture of the descent of the Manor. Elsewhere will be found a list of lords of Stanford Rivers and Traceys and Bellhouse but it must be admitted that due to imperfect and mixed records it cannot be said to be 100 per cent reliable. As far as the conveyancing of land in mediaeval times is concerned there exists records of "The Feet of Fines". These curious records were kept from the year 1195 and continued until about the year 1837. It is not possible to give here more than a few examples or even to explain fully their purpose. Roughly it meant that to secure the transfer of property, a "fictitious" suit was brought to the King's Court - or to his Justices, in which the entering tenant demanded the property as "plaintiff" from the existing holder as "defendant". The result, the "final concord" was drawn up in the form of a triple indenture - one copy being given to each party and the third, forming the lowest part or "foot" of the sheet of parchment was preserved with the Court records. Many thousands of these Feet of Fines covering the whole country have been preserved and arranged under their several counties and are, of course, invaluable to a serious student of village history. I have decided to include just a few examples hereunder in order to show the form usually taken.

Feet of Fines

1485 — Philip Malpas - citizen and merchant of London, Wm. Venous Esq., John Say Esq., and Thomas Cook, Citizen and Draper of London, Plaintiffs. - Thomas Jerveys, Citizen and Skinner of London and Joan, his wife, Defendants - 6 messuages, 370 acres of land, 20 acres of meadow, 100 acres of pasture, 20 acres of wood and 40/- rent - in Chikwell (Chigwell), Stanford Rivers and Havering-at-Bourne. Defendants quitclaimed to Plaintiffs and heirs of Philip Malpas. Consideration 200 1.

1458 — Wm. Catesby (Knt.), Henry Grene Esq., etc. Plaintiffs - and Humphrey Duke of Buckingham and Anne, his wife - Defendants. The Manors of Stanford Rivers, Suttons, Pyggesland, Botels and Brigges - 4 Messuages, 4 Tofts, 1000 acres of land, 40 acres of meadow and 200 acres of wood in Stanford Rivers etc. Defendants quitclaimed to Plaintiffs and heirs of Wm. Catesby.

1467 — Thomas Bull, Richard Bull, Wm. Pecock and Wm. Smyth - Plaintiffs - Francis Bury and Agnes, his wife - Defendants - 1 Messuage, 80 acres of land, 6 acres of meadow, 7 acres of pasture in Stanford Rivers, Tany, and Navestock. Defendants quitclaimed to plaintiffs and heirs of T. Bull - Consideration 100 1.

1502 — Robert Sheffield (Knt.) Robert Lytton (Knt.), John Kyngesmyll (Sergeant-at-law), and John Scott - Plaintiffs - Edward, Duke of Buckingham and Eleanor, his wife. Defendants - The Manors of Stanford Rivers, Traceys, and Suttons and 500 acres of land, 40 acres of meads, 100 acres of pasture, 200 acres of wood and 4 1 6s 8d rent in Stanford Rivers, Traceys and Suttons. The Manor of Pyggesland etc. The Defendants quitclaimed to Plaintiffs and heirs of John Scott.

1520 — Thomas Stepneph and Thomas Brynning - Plaintiffs - Robert Turbervyle Esq., and Joan his wife - Defendants - The Manor of Bellhouse. Defendant quitclaimed to Plaintiff and the heirs of Thomas Brynning - Consideration 200 1.

1528 — Thomas Grene, Wm. Sulyard, Thomas Turpyn, Richard Ryche, Wm. Bernes, Richard Lynsell and Edward Campyon - Plaintiff - Richard Turbervyle Esq., and Joan, his wife, Defendants - The Manor of Bellhouse, 1 Messuage, 200 acres of land, 24 acres of meadow, 40 acres of pasture, 30 acres of wood and 40/- rent in Stanford Rivers. Defendant quitclaimed to Thomas Grene. Consideration 200 l.